Physics Experiment - 5459 Words

EXPERIMENT NO-1 AIM- To determine the frequency of A. C. mains by using an electric vibrator. APPARATUS- Electric vibrator, table lamp, pulley, weight box, fishing cord, a. c. source. THEORY- when a cord of mass per unit length m is connected to the vibrating rod of the vibrator and stretched with a tension T, the cord vibrators in segments. If the length of the cord is then adjusted until the nodes are clearly marked, the frequency of the stretched string is the same as of the vibrating rod which is vibrating with the frequency of A.C. Mains. Its frequency of vibrating is given by ÃŽ ·=12lTm And this is also frequency of A.C. mains. FIGURE- PROCEDURE- 1. Switch on current and†¦show more content†¦Here the leakage current flows in the circuit. This current is known as reverse saturation current. It increases rapidly in the initial stage due to an exponential decrease of diffusion current with increasing reverse voltage. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM- A V A V PROCEDURE- SEMICONDOUTOR DIODE: - FORWARD BIAS: 1. Make the connection as shown in the circuit. 2. Vary the inbuilt d. c. supply voltage in steps of 0.1V and note down corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings. 3. Plot the graph of voltage (on x-axis) Vs current I (on y-axis). REVERSE BIAS: 1. Make the connection as shown in the circuit. 2. Put the voltmeter range switch to 50V and ammeter range switch to 200  µA. 3. Vary the supply voltage in steps of 1V and note down corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings. 4. Plot the graph of voltage (on x-axis) Vs current I (on y-axis). OBSERVATION TABLE- SEMICONDOUTOR DIODE: - FORWARD BIAS: S. NO. | VOLTAGE (V) | CURRENT (mA) | | Division | Least count | Total | Division | Least count | Total | | | | | | | | REVERSE BIAS: S. NO. | VOLTAGE (V) | CURRENT ( µ A) | | Division | Least count | Total | Division | Least count | Total | | | | | | | | RESULT- Forward and reverse bias characteristics of semiconductor diode is plotted on the graph. PRECAUTIONS- 1. In the forward bias the pShow MoreRelatedPhysics Of A Physics Experiment930 Words   |  4 Pages Experiment is the way that be used by people to either practice or prove a physics theorem. It should be rigorous and carefully designed even if the experiment is dealing with a shallow thing. As simple as the experiment of detecting Friction Force between an object and surface, the experiment still has to follow several stages in order to make the conclusion accurate. First of all, every physical exam will begin with a hypothesis. We must figure out what we are going to test about duringRead MoreThe Physics Of An Experiment1509 Words   |  7 Pagesin the EPR paper and later more eloquently describe by David Bohm. 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Contracts Examples and Explanations System †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Contracts Examples and Explanations System. Answer: Introduction: A contract denotes a promise being made which has legal validity, where one party agrees that they would do the promised task under the contract, and the other party agrees that they would make payment of the consideration value, as was decided between both the parties (Abbott, Pendlebury Wardman, 2007). A contract can be formed orally, where the parties exchange the terms of contract in a spoken manner. On the other hand, a contract can be created in written manner, whereby the terms of the particular contract are provided on a document and the parties to the contract signing such document (Marson Ferris, 2015). For the purpose of forming contract, there is a requirement for certain important or essential elements to be present in a contract; these include offer, acceptance, consideration, intention, legality and capacity (Gibson Fraser, 2014). The first step in creating a contract is for an offer is to be made by one party. This offer needs to be clearly stated and needs to provide the details of the terms being offered by the offering party. It is important that an offer is differentiated from an invitation to treat, as the former shows the intent of getting in legal relations, but the same is not present in invitation to treat, which denotes only the negotiation phase of contract, which may or may not be present in every case (Paterson, Robertson Duke, 2012). In invitation to treat cases, the individual is not obligated to sell the advertised products, as had been seen in Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots [1953] 1 QB 401. In general, the advertisements which are placed in the newspapers are invitation to treat, as was seen in Partridge v Critenden (1968) 2 All ER 425. However, there are cases when the advertisements in newspapers are taken to be an offer. For this, reference needs to be made to Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co [1893] 1 QB 256. In this case, a newspaper advertisement was given by the defendant providing that where a person got sick with influenza, even after using their product in the prescribed manner, they would get an award. The plaintiff used the product and still fell sick. This led to a case being raised as the defendant denied paying the rewards money stating that the advertisement was an invitation to treat. However, the court stated that this was not the case and that a unilateral offer had been made in this case. Upon such an offer being made, the other party only has to undertake the performance of the promise to give their acceptance (Latimer, 2012). The next requirement in formation of a contract is for the presence of an acceptance. The offer which has been made by the offering party has to be accepted in the exact manner it was made, by the accepting party (Andrews, 2015). Where there is any change in the communication of acceptance, it would result in a counter offer being made based on Hyde v Wrench (1840) 49 ER 132. The acceptance has to be unequivocal, clear and unambiguous. In context of acceptance, it is crucial that the acceptance is given in the mode which had been prescribed by the offering party. The acceptance date is taken to be such date when the acceptance is communicated to the offering party; in other words, the day on which the acceptance reaches the offering party, is the date of acceptance (Blum, 2007). The next requirement for creating a legally binding contract is for the value of consideration being present, which needs to have economic value, as without valid consideration, a contract is not deemed as valid. However, the parties are free to decide the value of consideration, as it needs to be sufficient not adequate (Stone Devenney, J. (2014). For instance, in Chappell v Nestle [1960] AC 87, three wrappers had been accepted as valid consideration in this case due to condition precedent. The next requirement in creating the contract is for the parties to have the intention of creating legal relations, which can give rise to possible liabilities for the parties in future, in addition to giving them certain rights (Elliot, 2011). The terms of the contract need to be legal as an illegality in the contract, in terms of presence of coercion, can render the contract void. Lastly, the contracting parties need to hold the capacity of entering into the contract, in terms of holding the l egal age under the eyes of law (McKendrick, 2014). In the present instance, an advertisement had been placed in the local newspaper. There is a need to decide here whether this advertisement was an offer or an invitation to treat. This requires careful analysis of the wordings of the advertisement. This advertisement was a unilateral offer as it was an open offer for any person who was reading this advertisement that if they found the lost gold locket and chain, they would get the reward based on Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co, as against Partridge v Critenden due to presence of unilateral offer. An individual only had to find the lost gold locket and chain and the offer would deem to be accepted. There was consideration value of $50 making it valid consideration based on Chappell v Nestle. There was no mode of acceptance provided in the advertisement. Only the phone number and address was provided. So, a person could inform by any one of the two modes, due to lack of clearly providing which mode had to be provided. The intent was present based as Leila wanted her belongings back and Julie wanted the payment. There was no illegality in this case. It is assumed that the parties had the legal capacity of getting in a contract. Premise and Authority When it comes to the offer and acceptance parts of formation of contract, it is crucial that the acceptance is given by the party to which the offer had been made. The unilateral contract only binds the promisor till the time the work is undertaken. So, any person can fulfil the made offer and perform on it, to give their acceptance, as the unilateral offer is made to the world, instead of being made to a particular set of people (Latimer, 2012). In the present instance, where Julie does not read the advertisement and comes to know of it through April, she could still accept the offer by performing on it. Her finding of locket and chain and returning it to Leila would be performance of the promise under the unilateral offer. The other elements continue to be present as shown earlier. Thus, based on the aforementioned details, it can be concluded that a valid contract was still formed between the two parties in this case. The key issue of this case revolves around the possible remedies which Adam has in context of the breach of contract by Edwin in context of a special item. The other issue relates to the possible change in advice where the car, instead of being a vintage car, turns out to be a late model Mercedes Benz. Rule: Premise and Authority Once a contract is formed, it is central that promise made in the particular or specified contract is properly upheld. Where the promise undertaken in the contract is not fulfilled, it results in the contract being breached. When the contract is contravened, the aggrieved party can apply for the different remedies available in cases of breach of contract (Mulcahy, 2008). In Addis v Gramophone [1909] AC 488, the court held that the purpose of awarding damages under the contract law was to put the injured party in a position which they would have reached upon performing the promised terms of the contract. There are different remedies which can be claimed upon by the aggrieved party and these include damages, which is given in terms of monetary compensation, or equitable damages, in terms of injunction, specific performance, and rescission, amongst the others (Poole, 2016). In order to apply for the damages for the loss which a person bears, as a result of the non performance of the contract, there is a need to prove three things, i.e. causation, remoteness and duty of mitigating losses (Waddams, 2011). For instance, due to the lack of causation in Monarch Steamship Co Ltd v Karlshamns Oljefabriker (A/B) [1949] AC 196, the claim of defendant regarding breaking of chain of causation was quashed. In Hadley v Baxendale [1854] EWHC Exch J70, it was provided that the damages for the contract breach would be provided only when it was a reasonable and fair result from contravention of the contract or in such cases where the damages could be reasonably be supposed to be contemplated of both parties during the time of formation of contract. Lastly, the defendants had the duty of mitigating the loss. In Payzu v Saunders [1919] 2 KB 581, the damages were not awarded to the claimant as he had been provided with the opportunity of purchasing the item at discounted p rice. As there was a failure in taking the reasonable steps for mitigating the loss, the damages were not awarded. In such cases where the damages are not adequate compensation to the loss of the aggrieved party, they can apply for equitable remedies. One of these is specific performance of the promise made under the contract. However, the courts are often reluctant in providing the specific performance as a remedy, and this is available in limited situations only. The court thus considers the facts of the case to analyse if the damages being awarded is an adequate or inadequate remedy. Where the damages are inadequate compensation, specific performance would be awarded by the court (Treitel Peel, 2015). In Nutbrown v Thornton (1805) 10 Ves 159, a contact was entered in by the claimant and the defendant for purchasing some machinery. There was a refusal of delivering the machines by the defendant resulting in him being in breach of contract. This type of machinery was only manufactured by the defendant. This led to the plaintiff brining in a case of breach of contract against the defendant and claimed for specific performance from the court. It was held in this case that the specific performance had to be granted as a remedy. This was because the awarding of damages would be given for non-delivery of ordinary goods. Here, being the machinery not available anywhere else, it was special in nature, requiring special compensation in terms of specific performance being awarded to the claimant. As against this, Cohen v Roche [1927] 1 KB 169 saw a furniture shop being owned by the claimant and him entering in an agreement of purchasing a certain number of Hepplewhite chairs for selling this in his shop. The defendant refused to deliver these chairs, resulting in the contract being breached. This led to the plaintiff brining in a case of breach of contract against the defendant and claimed for specific performance from the court. However, this request was denied and the monetary compensation was seen as an adequate compensation in this case. The reason for this was that the chairs were deemed as goods of ordinary nature having no special interest or value. In the present instance, a contract had been drawn between Adam and Edwin where Adam was set to purchase the vintage car, 1925 Rolls Royce from Edwin for a price of $500,000. They even entered in a contract for this very purpose. However, Edwin later on denied selling the vintage car to Adam as he knew from grapevine that the same car could be sold for $700,000 to an Arabian Sheik. Here, Adam can apply for damages for the breach of contract on part of Edwin. This is based on Monarch Steamship Co Ltd v Karlshamns Oljefabriker as there was direct causation where the breach of contract by Edwin resulted in Adam losing an opportunity to get his hands on a vintage car. Further, it was reasonably foreseeable that by not getting hands on the vintage car, Adam would be at a loss position. This was naturally a result of breach of contract by Edwin based on Hadley v Baxendale. Lastly, Edwin failed in taking the requisite steps to mitigate the loss of Adam, based on Payzu v Saunders, in terms o f making arrangements which could have allowed for Adam to get his car on another 1925 Rolls Royce for the same price. Even more important claim which can be made by Adam here is claiming specific performance of the contract from Edwin. This is because the 1925 Rolls Royce is a vintage car which holds special interest and special value, and is different from ordinary items. Based on Nutbrown v Thornton, Adam is most likely to succeed in this claim as against that of damages, as damages are not an adequate compensation in this case. Where the motor vehicle had been late model Mercedes Benz, the chances of Adam succeeding in claims of specific performance were not very likely. This is because the late model Mercedes Benz is not an item holding special interest or special value. The late model Mercedes Benz, particularly in comparison of the vintage car 1925 Rolls Royce is not an item of special interest or special value and is instead an ordinary item. This is in the same way as was held in Cohen v Roche, as here Adam could have procured the late model Mercedes Benz from any place as it was not a limited or special edition item. Here, Adam would have to suffice himself by getting damages as remedy to the breach of contract by Edwin. Conclusion Thus, based on the aforementioned details, it can be concluded that where the case of breach of contract includes the vintage car 1925 Rolls Royce as the item which had to be sold under the contract to Adam by Edwin, Adam would be successful in getting specific performance. However, when it comes to the breach of contract revolving around the late model Mercedes Benz, Adam would not be successful in getting specific performance and would have to suffice with damages as remedy. References Abbott, K., Pendlebury, N., Wardman, K. (2007). Business law (8th ed.). London: Thompson Learning. Addis v Gramophone [1909] AC 488 Andrews, N. (2015). Contract Law (2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press Blum, B.A. (2007). Contracts: Examples Explanations (4th ed.). New York: Aspen Publishers. Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co [1893] 1 QB 256 Chappell v Nestle [1960] AC 87 Cohen v Roche [1927] 1 KB 169 Elliot, C. (2011) Contract Law (8th ed.). London: Pearson. Gibson, A., Fraser, D. (2014). Business Law 2014 (8th ed.). Melbourne, Pearson Education Australia. Hadley v Baxendale [1854] EWHC Exch J70 Hyde v Wrench (1840) 49 ER 132 Latimer, P. (2012). Australian Business Law 2012 (31st ed.). Sydney, NSW: CCH Australia Limited. Marson, J., Ferris, K. (2015). Business Law (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. McKendrick, E. (2014). Contract Law: Text, Cases, and Materials (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Monarch Steamship Co Ltd v Karlshamns Oljefabriker (A/B) [1949] AC 196 Mulcahy, L. (2008). Contract Law in Perspective (5th ed.). Oxon: Routledge. Nutbrown v Thornton (1805) 10 Ves 159 Partridge v Critenden (1968) 2 All ER 425 Paterson, J.M., Robertson, A., Duke, A. (2012). Principles of Contract Law (4th ed.). Rozelle, NSW: Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia. Payzu v Saunders [1919] 2 KB 581 Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots [1953] 1 QB 401 Poole, J. (2016). Textbook on Contract Law (13th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stone, R., Devenney, J. (2014). Text, Cases and Materials on Contract Law (3rd ed.). Oxon: Routledge. Treitel, G H., Peel, E. (2015). The Law of Contract (14th ed.). London: Sweet Maxwell. Waddams, S. (2011). Principle and Policy in Contract Law: Competing or Complementary Concepts?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.